Wachs, Sebastian; Kansok-Dusche, Julia; Hong, Jun Sung; Bilz, Ludwig; Wettstein, Alexander; Gámez-Guadix, Manuel (2026). Affective, cognitive, and normative correlates of bystander profiles in racist hate speech: Cross-level moderation of empathy by anti-hate speech norms. Frontiers in Education, 11, pp. 1-14 Frontiers. 10.3389/feduc.2026.1813373

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Background: Hate speech in schools threatens inclusive classroom climates, positioning bystanders as central actors in either reinforcing or counteracting discriminatory interactions. While prior research has identified individual predictors of bystander behavior, less is known about how affective, cognitive, and normative processes across ecological levels jointly shape heterogeneous response patterns. Grounded in the Social Cognitive Theory, this study examines affective (empathy), cognitive (moral disengagement), and normative (injunctive anti-hate speech norms) correlates of latent bystander profiles at both the student- and classroom-level, and tests whether shared classroom norms condition the association between individual empathy and distinct bystander responses.

Methods: Using a multilevel, person-centered approach, data from 3,225 seventh- to ninth-grade students were analyzed to examine student- and classroom-level correlates of profile membership. Participants completed selfreport questionnaires measuring bystander responses empathy, moral disengagement, and injunctive anti-hate speech norms.

Results: At the student-level, higher empathy was positively associated with defender membership but also with revenger and contributor profiles, whereas moral disengagement was linked to a lower likelihood of defending and a higher likelihood of contributing. Stronger perceived injunctive anti-hate speech norms at the student-level were associated with a higher likelihood of defender membership and a lower likelihood of contributor membership. At the classroom-level, stronger injunctive anti-hate speech norms were related to a reduced likelihood of contributor membership. Moreover, classroom injunctive anti-hate speech norms moderated the association between student empathy and defending, such that empathy was less predictive of defender membership in classrooms with stronger anti-hate speech norms.

Conclusion: The findings suggest that adolescents’ bystander responses to hate speech reflect an interplay between individual dispositions and classroom normative climates. In particular, classroom injunctive norms appear to moderate the extent to which individual empathy is associated with defending, although this cross-level effect should be interpreted with caution. The study provides a focused multilevel extension of bystander research by highlighting the context-dependent role of empathy.

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